In Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella had brought all the smaller kingdoms and the Moors under one united crown.

In France, Louis XI.

had shattered the fabric of feudalism, and by artful alliance with the people had humiliated and subjugated the proud nobility.

Henry VIII.

had established absolutism in England, and Maximilian had done the same for Germany, while even the Italian republics, were being gathered into the hands of larger sovereignties.