But reading, far from being then considered, as it is now, an essential attainment for all, and one which we are sure of finding possessed by all who have received any instruction whatever, was regarded in those days a sort of technical art, learned only by those who were to make some professional use of the acquisition.

Monks and clerks could always read, but generals, gentlemen, and kings very seldom.

And as they could not read, neither could they write.

They made a rude cross at the end of the writings which they wished to authenticate instead of signing their names--a mode which remains to the present day, though it has descended to the very lowest and humblest classes of society.
In fact, even the upper classes of society could not generally learn to read in those days, for there were no books.

Every thing recorded was in manuscripts, the characters being written with great labor and care, usually on parchment, the captions and leading letters being often splendidly illuminated and adorned by gilded miniatures of heads, or figures, or landscapes, which enveloped or surrounded them.
Judith had such a manuscript of some Saxon poems.