A man's life was worth scarcely more than that of a horse.

The palaces of the nobles swarmed with professional cut-throats, and the great ecclesiastics claimed for their abodes the right of sanctuary.

Popes sold absolution for the most horrible excesses, and granted indulgences beforehand for the commission of crimes of lust and violence.

Success was the standard by which acts were judged; and the man who could help his friends intimidate his enemies, and carve a way to fortune for himself by any means he chose, was regarded as a hero.

Machiavelli's use of the word _virtu_ is in this relation most instructive.