In reality it was at first a close aristocracy of influential families, to whom the authority of the superseded Counts was transferred in commission, and who held it by hereditary right.[3] Unless we firmly grasp this fact, the subsequent vicissitudes of the Italian commonwealths are unintelligible, and the elaborate definitions of the Florentine doctrinaires lose half their meaning.

The internal revolutions of the free cities were almost invariably caused by the necessity of enlarging the Popolo, and extending its franchise to the non-privileged inhabitants.

Each effort after expansion provoked an obstinate resistance from those families who held the rights of burghership; and thus the technical terms _primo popolo_, _secondo popolo_, _popolo grasso_, _popolo minuto_, frequently occurring in the records of the Republics, indicate several stages in the progress from oligarchy to democracy.

The constitution of the city at this early period was simple.

At the head of its administration stood the Bishop, with the Popolo of enfranchised burghers.